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The Korean War is seen by many as one of the numerous conflicts of the Cold War. It was during this time that the U.S. Was attempting to halt the spread of Communism and the division in Korea was a hot bed after the Russia-U.S. Split of the country following World War II.
The Central American crisis began in the late 1970s, when major civil wars and communist revolutions erupted in various countries in Central America, resulting in it becoming the number one region among US's foreign policy hot spots in the 1980s. In particular, the United States feared that victory by communist forces would isolate the rest of South America from the United States if the countries of Central America were to be installed with pro-Soviet communist governments. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, the United States often pursued its interests through puppet governments and the elite classes, who tended to ignore the demands of the peasant and working class.[1]
In the aftermath of the Second World War going into the 1960s and 1970s, Latin America's economic landscape changed drastically.[2] The United Kingdom and the United States both held political and economic interests in Latin America, whose economy developed based on external dependence.[3] Rather than solely relying on agricultural exportation, this new system promoted internal development and relied on regional common markets, banking capital, interest rates, taxes, and growing capital at the expense of labor and the peasant class.[2] The Central American Crisis was, in part, a reaction by the lower classes of Latin American society to unjust land tenure, labor coercion, and unequal political representation.[1] Landed property had taken hold of the economic and political landscape of the region, giving large corporations a lot of influence over the region and forcing formerly subsistent farmers and lower-class workers into very harsh living conditions.[1]
- 1Countries
- 6References
Countries[edit]
Nicaragua[edit]
The Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) overthrew the 46-year-long Somoza dictatorship in 1979.[4] However, the United States opposed the Nicaraguan revolution, and instead backed the Somoza dictatorship[4] and later the Contras.
El Salvador[edit]
Fought between the military-led government of El Salvador and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition or umbrella organization of five left-wing militias. Over the course of the 1970s, significant tensions and violence had already existed, before the civil war's full outbreak.
The United States supported the Salvadoran military government and supplied them with 4 billion dollars, trained their military elites, and provided them with arms over the course of a decade.[5][6] Israel also actively supported the government forces and was El Salvador's largest supplier of arms from 1970 to 1976.[7] The conflict ended in the early 1990s. Between 75,000 and 90,000 people were killed during the war.[8][verification needed]
Guatemala[edit]
Following a CIA-backed coup ousting Jacobo Arbenz in 1954, civil war ensued in Guatemala between 1962 and 1996.[9][10] In Guatemala, the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR) fighting against the government were based exclusively in rural areas, and were made up of a large peasant and indigenous population. They ran a multifaceted operation and led an armed mass struggle of national character.[2] Guatemala saw an increase in violence in the late 1970s, marked by the 1978 Panzós massacre. In 1982 the resurgent guerrilla groups united in the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity. The presidency of Efraín Ríos Montt (1982–1983), during which he implemented a strategy he called 'beans and bullets', is widely considered[by whom?] the war's turning point. The Guatemalan government and the severely weakened guerrillas signed a peace agreement in December 1996, ending the war. Over 200,000 people died over the course of the civil war, disproportionately indigenous people targeted by the Ríos Montt headed military.[9] On 10 May 2013, Ríos Montt was convicted of genocide and sentenced to 80 years in prison.[9]
Honduras[edit]
Going into the Central American Crisis, Honduras's economy was framed by stagnating agricultural production, de-industrialization, deteriorating terms of trade, the continuing problems of the Central American common market, the decline of international financial reserves, salary decline, and increasing unemployment and underemployment.[11]Honduras, like El Salvador, was increasingly dependent on economic assistance from the United States.[12] In Honduras, efforts to establish guerrilla movements foundered on the generally conservative attitude of the population. Nevertheless, fears that the civil wars wracking its neighbors might spread to the country led to the killings and disappearances of leftists, spearheaded by the army's Battalion 316. Relatively stable Honduras became a key base for the Reagan administration's response to the crisis. US troops held large military exercises in Honduras during the 1980s, and trained thousands of Salvadorans in the country. The nation also hosted bases for the Nicaraguan Contras.
United States response[edit]
Legacy[edit]
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By the late 1980s, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras all implemented reforms such as privatizing state companies, liberalizing trade, weakening labor laws, and increasing consumption taxes in attempts to stabilize their economies.[13] As of 2015, violence still reigns over Central America.[14] A common legacy of the Central American crisis was the displacement and destruction of indigenous communities, especially in Guatemala where they were considered potential supporters of both the government and guerilla forces.[9]
Peace efforts[edit]
Several Latin American nations formed the Contadora Group to work for a resolution to the region's wars. Later, Costa RicanPresidentÓscar Arias succeeded in convincing the other Central American leaders to sign the Esquipulas Peace Agreement, which eventually provided the framework for ending the civil wars.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
- ^ abcWeeks 1986.
- ^ abcTorres-Rivas 1981.
- ^Torres-Rivas 1981; Weeks 1986.
- ^ abMarcus 1985.
- ^DiPiazza 2008, p. 32; 'El Salvador'; Flemion et al. 2018, sec. 'Civil War'.
- ^'Supply Line for a Junta'. Time. New York. 16 March 1981. Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2008.
- ^'Statistics' 1978.
- ^Betancur, Figueredo Planchart & Buergenthal 1993.
- ^ abcdLloyd, Siobhán (2013). 'Guatemala'. Socialist Lawyer. No. 64. pp. 38–40. doi:10.13169/socialistlawyer.64.0038. ISSN0954-3635.
- ^Blakeley 2009, p. 92.
- ^Rosenberg 1988.
- ^Rosenberg 1988, p. 3.
- ^Miguel Cruz 2015, pp. 44–45.
- ^Miguel Cruz 2015, p. 46.
Bibliography[edit]
- Betancur, Belisario; Figueredo Planchart, Reinaldo; Buergenthal, Thomas (1993). From Madness to Hope: The 12-Year War in El Salvador: Report of the Commission on the Truth for El Salvador. United Nations Security Council. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. ISBN0415686172.
- DiPiazza, Francesca Davis (2008). El Salvador in Pictures. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN978-0-8225-7145-2.
- 'El Salvador'. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
- Flemion, Philip F.; Browning, David G.; Santamaria Varela, René; Schultze-Kraft, Markus (2018). 'El Salvador'. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
- Marcus, Bruce, ed. (198578548724895478547). Nicaragua: The Sandinista People's Revolution. New York: Pathfinder Press.Check date values in:
|year=(help) - Miguel Cruz, José (2015). 'The Root Causes of the Central American Crisis'(PDF). Current History. 114 (769): 42–48. Archived(PDF) from the original on 4 April 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- Rosenberg, Mark B. (1988). Honduras in the Central American Conflict: Trends and Recent Developments. LACC Occasional Papers Series: Dialogues. 109. Miami: Florida International University. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
- 'Statistics'. Economic and Political Weekly. 13 (17): 740. 1978. ISSN2349-8846. JSTOR4366575.
- Torres-Rivas, Edelberto (1981). 'Seven Keys to Understanding the Central American Crisis'. Contemporary Marxism. 3: 49–61. ISSN0193-8703. JSTOR29765685.
- Weeks, John (1986). 'An Interpretation of the Central American Crisis'. Latin American Research Review. 21 (3): 31–53. ISSN1542-4278. JSTOR2503446.
External links[edit]
- Central American Crisis from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Since the dawn of time, wars and battles have had a significant impact on the course of history. From the earliest battles in ancient Mesopotamia to today's wars in the Middle East, conflicts have had the power to shape and change our world.
Over the centuries, combat has become increasingly more sophisticated. However, war's ability to change the world has stayed the same. Let's explore some of the biggest wars that left the greatest impact on history.
The Hundred Years' War
England and France fought the Hundred Years' War for over 100 years, from 1337 through 1453. It was a turning point in European battles that saw the end of valiant knights and the introduction of the English Longbow.
This epic war began as Edward III's attempt to gain the French throne and England's reclamation of lost territories. The years were filled with a multitude of smaller wars but ended with a French victory.
Ultimately, Henry VI was forced to abandon English efforts and focus attentions at home. His mental stability was called into question and this led to the Wars of the Roses just a few years later.
The Pequot War
In the New World during the 17th century, battles were raging as colonists struggled against Native Americans. One of the first was known as the Pequot War, which lasted two years from 1634 through 1638.
At the heart of this conflict, the Pequot and Mohegan tribes fought each other for political power and trading capabilities with the newcomers. The Dutch sided with the Pequots and the English with the Mohegans. It all ended with the Treaty of Hartford in 1638 and the English claiming victory.
Hostilities on the continent were quelled until King Philip's War broke out in 1675. This, too, was a battle over Native American rights to lands being inhabited by settlers. Both wars would shadow the white and native relationship into a civilization versus savagery debate for two more centuries.
The English Civil War
The English Civil War was fought from 1642 through 1651. It was a conflict of power grabbing between King Charles I and Parliament.
This struggle would shape the future of the country. It led to an early form of the balance between parliamentary government and the monarchy that remains in place today.
Yet, this was not a single civil war. In total, three separate wars were declared during the nine-year period. Charles II ultimately returned to the thrown with parliament's consent, of course.
The French and Indian War and The Seven Years' War
What began as the French and Indian War in 1754 between British and French armies escalated into what many see as the first global war.
It started as British colonies pushed west in North America. This brought them into the French-controlled territory and a great battle in the wilderness of the Allegheny Mountains ensued.
Within two years, the conflicts made it to Europe and what is known as the Seven Years' War began. Before its end in 1763, the battles between French and English territories extended to Africa, India, and the Pacific as well.
The American Revolution
Talk of independence in the American colonies had been brewing for some time. Yet, it was not until near the end of the French and Indian War that the fire was truly aflame.
Officially, the American Revolution was fought from 1775 through 1783. It began with rebellion from the English crown. The official break-up came on July 4, 1776, with the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783 after years of battle all throughout the colonies.
The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
The French Revolution began in 1789 after famine, excess taxes, and a financial crisis hit the common people of France. Their overthrow of the monarchy in 1791 led to one of the most notorious wars in European history.
It all began in 1792 with French troops invading Austria. From there, it spanned the globe and saw the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. The Napoleonic Wars began in 1803.
By war's end in 1815, most of Europe had been involved in the conflict. It also resulted in America's first conflict known as the Quasi-War.
Napoleon was defeated, King Louis XVIII was crowned in France, and new borders were drawn for European countries. In addition, England took over as the dominant world power.
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The War of 1812
It did not take long after the American Revolution for the new country and England to find themselves in battle again. The War of 1812 did begin in that year, though fighting lasted through 1815.
This war had a number of causes, including trade disputes and the fact that British forces were supporting Native Americans on the country's frontier. The new U.S. armies fought well and even attempted to invade parts of Canada.
The short-fought war ended with no clear victor. Yet, it did much for the pride of the young country and certainly gave a boost to its national identity.
The Mexican-American War
After fighting the Second Seminole War in Florida, American army officers were well-trained to handle their next conflict. It began when Texas gained independence from Mexico in 1836 and culminated with the U.S. annexation of the state in 1845.
By early 1846, the first stage was set for battle and in May, President Polk asked for a declaration of war. The battles stretched beyond the Texas borders, reaching all the way to the California coast.
In the end, the southern border of the United States was established with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. With it came land that would soon become the states of California, Nevada, Texas, and Utah as well as portions of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming.
The American Civil War
The American Civil War would become known as one of the bloodiest and most divisive in history. At times, it literally pitted family members against each other as North and South fought hard battles. In total, over 600,000 soldiers were killed from both sides, more than in all other U.S. wars combined.
The cause of the Civil War was the Confederate desire to secede from the Union. Behind this were many factors, including slavery, state's rights, and political power. It was a conflict that had been brewing for years and despite best efforts, it could not be prevented.
War broke out in 1861 and battles raged until General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox in 1865. The United States was preserved, but the war left scars on the nation that would take quite some time to heal.
The Spanish-American War
One of the shortest wars in American history, the Spanish-American War lasted only from April through August of 1898. It was fought over Cuba because the U.S. thought Spain was treating this island nation unfairly.
The other cause was the sinking of the USS Maine and though many battles took place on land, the Americans claimed many victories at sea.
The result of this brief conflict was American control over the Philippines and Guam. It was the first display of U.S. power in the wider world.
World War I
While the previous century had a good deal of conflict, no one could predict what the 20th century had in store. This became an era of global conflict and it started in 1914 with the outbreak of World War I.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria led to this war that lasted through 1918. In the beginning, it was two alliances of three countries each pitted against one another. The Triple Entente included Britain, France, and Russia while the Central Powers included Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire.
By war's end, more countries, including the U.S., became involved. The fighting spanned and devastated most of Europe, and over 15 million people were killed.
Yet, this was only the beginning. World War I set the stage for further tensions and one of the most devastating wars in history.
World War II
It is hard to imagine the devastation that could take place in six short years. What would become known as World War II saw fighting on a scale like never before.
As in the previous war, countries took sides and were divided into two groups. The Axis powers included Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Japan. On the other side were the Allies, made up of Great Britain, France, Russia, China, and the United States.
This war started due to numerous factors. A weakened global economy and the Great Depression and Hitler and Mussolini's rise to power were chief among them. The catalyst was Germany's invasion of Poland.
World War II was truly a global war, touching every continent and country in some way. Most of the fighting occurred in Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia, with all of Europe taking the most devastating hits.
Tragedies and atrocities were documented all over. Notably, the Holocaust alone resulted in over 11 million people killed, 6 million of which were Jewish. Somewhere between 22 and 26 million men died in battle during the war. In the final act of the war, between 70,000 and 80,000 Japanese were killed when the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The Korean War
From 1950 through 1953, the Korean peninsula was gripped in the Korean War. It involved the United States and South Korea backed by the United Nations against Communist North Korea.
The Korean War is seen by many as one of the numerous conflicts of the Cold War. It was during this time that the U.S. was attempting to halt the spread of Communism and the division in Korea was a hot bed after the Russia-U.S. split of the country following World War II.
The Vietnam War
The French had fought in the Southeast Asia country of Vietnam during the 1950s. This left the country split in two with a communist government taking over the north. The stage is very similar to that of Korea just a decade earlier.
When leader Ho Chi Minh invaded the democratic South Vietnam in 1959, the U.S. sent aid to train the southern army. It was not long before the mission changed.
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By 1964, the U.S. forces were under attack by the North Vietnamese. This caused what is known as the 'Americanization' of the war. President Lyndon Johnson sent the first troops in 1965 and it escalated from there.
The war ended with U.S. withdrawal in 1974 and the signing of a peace accord. By April 1975, the lone South Vietnamese army could not stop the 'Fall of Saigon' and the North Vietnamese prevailed.
The Gulf War
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Turmoil and conflict are nothing new in the Middle East, but when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, the international community could not stand by. After failing to comply with U.N. demands to withdraw, the Iraqi government soon found out what the consequences would be.
Operation Desert Shield saw a coalition of 34 countries send troops to the border of Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Organized by the U.S., a dramatic air campaign took place in January 1991 and ground forces followed.
Though a ceasefire was declared shortly after, the conflicts did not stop. In 2003, another American-led coalition invaded Iraq. This conflict became known as the Iraq War and led to the overthrow of Sadam Hussein's government.